Specific Learning Disability
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California Education Code Title 5, Section 3030 defines a Specific Learning Disability as: “...a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may have manifested itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.”
Of children identified as having specific learning disabilities, the great majority (over 80%) have a disability in the area of reading. The manifestation of a specific learning disability is contingent to some extent upon the type of instruction, supports, and accommodations provided, and the demands of the learning situation. Early intervention can reduce the impact of many specific learning disabilities. Specific learning disabilities vary in their degree of severity, and moderate to severe learning disabilities can be expected to impact performance throughout the life span. Finally, a multi-tiered system of student supports (MTSS) has been identified as effective as part of a comprehensive approach to meet students’ academic needs.
Learning Disabilities/ Disorders
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Dyscalculia
A learning disability in which the individual struggles to understand or comprehend arithmetic including difficulties with math symbols, organizing numbers, memorizing math facts, and trouble counting.
- Characteristics-
- Shows difficulty understanding concepts or place value, and quantity, number lines, positive and negative value, carrying and borrowing
- Has difficulty understanding and doing word problems
- Has difficulty sequencing information or events
- Exhibits difficulty using steps involved in math operations
- Show difficulty understanding fractions
- Is challenged making and handling money
- Displays difficulty recognizing patterns when adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing
- Has difficulty putting language to math processes
- Has difficulty understanding concepts related to time such as days, weeks, months, season, quarters, etc.
- Exhibits difficulty organizing problems on the page, keeping numbers lined up, following through on long division problems (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2016)
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Dysgraphia
“Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing abilities. It can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling, poor handwriting and trouble putting thoughts on paper” (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2007). Students with dysgraphia may have problems with executive functions for self-regulating letter writing, word spelling, and composing process (Washington State, 2011).
Characteristics-
- Tight, awkward pencil grip and body position
- Illegible handwriting
- Avoiding writing or drawing tasks
- Tiring quickly while writing
- Saying words out loud while writing
- Unfinished or mitted words in sentences
- Difficulty organizing thoughts on paper
- Difficulty with syntax structure and grammar
- Large gap between written ideas and understanding demonstrated through speech (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2007).
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Dyslexia
“Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge” (International Dyslexia Association, 2016).
Characteristics-
- May have a history of delayed oral language or speech development
- Difficulties in phonemic awareness skills such as rhyme, perception and sequence of sounds in words, segmenting (breaking words into sounds), and blending (combining sounds to make a whole word)
- Poor reading fluency (seems slow and laborious)
- Experiences decoding errors, especially with the order of letters
- Shows wide disparity between listening comprehension and reading comprehension of some text
- Has trouble with spelling (e.g., may omit speech sounds, write the wrong letters for sounds used, and demonstrate poor recall for familiar, small, frequently used words)
- May have difficulty with handwriting (e.g., awkward pencil grip, poor letter formation, difficulty spacing letters, and/or letter reversals)
- Exhibits difficulty recalling known words
- Has difficulty with written language (good ideas verbally but difficulty expressing them coherently in writing)
- May experience difficulty with math calculations, vocabulary or concepts, ability to memorize math facts or formulas, difficulty discriminating between similar-sounding numbers, and/or difficulty copying numbers and keeping them aligned.
- Decoding real words is better than nonsense words
- Organization of time, materials, and space
- May exhibit social and emotional difficulties stemming from repeated failure in the classroom, misunderstanding messages from others (Washington State, 2011; Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2016)
“Since dyslexia is a neurological, language-based disability that persists over time and interferes with an individual’s learning, it is critical that identification and intervention occur as early as possible” (Texas, 2014, p. 11).
Resources:
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Non-Verbal Learning Disability
“A nonverbal learning disability is a condition in which an individual does not accurately process information that is not verbal or linguistic (such as visual-spatial information, facial expressions, or social cues)” (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2016).
Characteristics-
- Has trouble recognizing nonverbal cues such as facial expression or body language
- Shows poor psycho-motor coordination; clumsy; seems to be constantly “getting in the way,” bumping into people and objects
- Using fine motor skills a challenge: tying shoes, writing, using scissors
- Needs to verbally label everything that happens to comprehend circumstances, spatial orientation, directional concepts and coordination; often lost or tardy
- Has difficulty coping with changes in routing and transitions
- Has difficulty generalizing previously learned information
- Has difficulty following multi-step instructions
- Make very literal translations
- Asks too many questions, maybe repetitive and inappropriately interrupt the flow of a lesson
- Imparts the “illusion of competence” because of the student’s strong verbal skills(Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2016)
Psychological Processing
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Attention Processing
The ability to selectively focus cognitive activity toward a stimulus over a period of time without being distracted by other competing stimuli.
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Auditory Processing
The brains ability to perceive and make sense of sound information. Specific auditory processing skills include-
- Auditory Awareness: the ability to detect sound, locate the sound source, attend to auditory information midst competing background noise.
- Auditory Discrimination: the ability to interpret differences between sounds including rate, intensity, duration, pitch, and prosody.
- Auditory Identification: the ability to create meaning to sounds and speech and to be able to change speech production based on hearing their own speech sounds.
- Auditory Comprehension: the ability to understand auditory messages including directions and understanding of stories, make sense of information when pieces of auditory information are missing, retain auditory information both immediately and after delay, and organize and manipulate spoken language for higher level learning and communication. (Susie S. Loraine, Super Duper Publications, 2010)
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Cognitive Abilities Processing
The ability to acquire knowledge through our thoughts, experiences, and senses. These abilities include-
- Association: the ability to create meaningful relationships between two or more items or concepts
- Conceptualization: the ability to mentally formulate an idea(s) or explanation from experience or presented information
- Expression: the ability to effectively express ones thoughts and ideas
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Phonological Processing
The ability to process basic word sounds which includes the aptitude to analyze and manipulate sound structures of words. Phonological processing is only one aspect of overall auditory perception which is only involved with the sounds that correspond to speech. This includes one’s ability to rhyme words, segment words, or break words into syllables, as well as isolate and count phonemes (Aaron, Joshi, & Quatroche, 2008).
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Sensory-Motor Processing
The ability to integrate both the sensory system and motor system by first receiving the sensory information and second producing a motor response. Some Sensory-Motor skills include-
- Body in space: the ability to know where one's body is in space and in relation to objects around them. This skill leads to visual-motor skills which are essential in learning to write and draw.
- Laterality: the ability to cross the midline of the body as well knowing left from right
- Centering: the ability to cross the midline of the body from top to bottom
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Visual Processing
How the brain interprets and makes sense of what is seen through different aspects of visual processes such as-
- Visual Discrimination: the ability to discriminate or determine differences and related features of an object and/or symbol.
- Visual Memory & Sequential Memory: the ability to recognize or remember for immediate recall of an object or symbol. At times this includes the ability to recall said items in a specific sequential order.
- Visual-Spatial Relations: the ability to perceive or distinguish differences in positions (ex: reversals or rotations) among similar objects or forms.
- Visual Form Constancy: the ability to mentally manipulate objects or symbols and visualize the resulting outcome.
- Visual Figure-Ground: the ability to visually perceive a symbol or object within a complex background or within surrounding objects.
- Visual Closure: the ability to visually identify a figure when presented with an incomplete picture of said figure.